22.The Southern Lands and the Southeast: A Fascinating Tale of Connection

 

The Southern Lands and the Southeast: A Fascinating Tale of Connection

From the Historical Records of Indonesia

During my visit to the National Museum in Jakarta, one artifact that immediately captivated my attention was a rare statue—Amoghapāśa, an Avalokiteśvara representation.

At first glance, I assumed it was just another ancient relic from the land of Śrīvijaya. However, little did I realize that this stone statue held within it the intricate political, social, economic, and spiritual narratives of the 13th century. As I explored further, I was struck by how this artifact was silently preserving the interconnected histories of the Chola and Pandya kingdoms of Tamil Nadu, Sri Lanka, East Java (Kēdiri/Singosari), Suvarṇabhūmi (Sumatra), and Melayu (Jambi).

Tracing the Historical Threads

A deeper investigation revealed an intriguing global context. During this period, Kublai Khan, the Yuan Dynasty ruler of China, loomed large over Southeast Asia. Around the same time, the Venetian traveler Marco Polo, having sailed directly from Kublai Khan’s court, arrived in Sumatra. His intended journey to Sri Lanka was delayed due to unfavorable monsoon winds, forcing him to stay in Sumatra for six months. His subsequent travels would take him to the Pandya kingdom, ruled by Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I.

This was an era of dynamic interactions, and this stone statue stood as a silent witness to these unfolding events.

The Pamalayu Expedition

On August 22, 1286, the Singhasari king, Abhiseka Śrī Mahārājādhirāja Kertanagara Wikrama Dharmmottunggadewa, sent an extraordinary royal gift—a statue of Bodhisattva Amoghapāśa Lokeśvara—to the ruler of Dharmasraya, the capital of Suvarṇabhūmi (Sumatra). This diplomatic gesture was carried out through a special envoy, Mahisa Anabrang (Kebo Anabrang), under the leadership of the high-ranking royal minister Adwayabrahma.

The Amoghapāśa statue represents Avalokiteśvara in a specific Bodhisattva form, often referred to as the "Bodhisattva with the Unfailing Lasso." This form is deeply significant in Mahāyāna Buddhist traditions, especially within esoteric tantric practices.

The Strategic Importance of the Gift

But why transport this statue across 2,000 kilometers of treacherous seas from East Java to Sumatra?

To understand this, we must analyze the political strategies and diplomatic maneuvers of this period. The rulers of the 13th century were master statesmen, employing calculated methods to assert dominance and forge alliances.

The ruling dynasty in the Srivijayan region at this time was the Mauli lineage, with Śrī Mahārāja Śrīmat Tribhuwanarāja Mauliwarmadewa reigning over Dharmasraya. This dynasty had risen to prominence after the collapse of the Śailendra rule in the 11th century, following the Chola naval invasion of 1025 CE led by Rājēndra Chola I. After nearly two centuries, the Mauli rulers emerged as the new stewards of the former Śrīvijayan realm, governing parts of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula.

Meanwhile, in Singhasari (East Java), King Kertanagara (r. 1268–1292)—often referred to as Shiva-Buddha—was its fifth ruler. Unlike his predecessors, Kertanagara adopted a bold and expansionist foreign policy, recognizing the need to unify maritime Southeast Asia to counter an impending Mongol invasion by Kublai Khan.

The Yuan Dynasty and the Mongol Threat

The Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368), headquartered in Dadu (present-day Beijing), was aggressively expanding its dominion. At its peak, the Mongol Empire stretched from Korea to Russia (Kievan Rus'), the Middle East (where they had destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad), and Eastern Europe. During the late 13th century, they also attempted to conquer Japan and Java.

Singhasari’s Pamalayu Expedition was a strategic move aimed at preventing Mongol naval forces from entering Javanese-controlled waters.

Kublai Khan’s Trade Relations with Tamil Nadu

During Kublai Khan’s reign (1271–1294), the Yuan Dynasty engaged in maritime trade with South India, particularly with the Tamil Pandya and Chola kingdoms. Tamil merchants dominated the Indian Ocean trade network, operating from major ports such as Kayal, Nagapattinam, and Kollam. Evidence suggests that Tamil traders had an active presence in Chinese ports like Quanzhou (Zaytun) and Guangzhou (Canton), where Tamil temples and trading guilds flourished. The Tamils exported pearls, textiles, and spices to China, while importing tea, porcelain, and luxury goods in return.

Marco Polo’s Observations on Tamil Kingdoms

Marco Polo, who served in Kublai Khan’s court, wrote extensively about the Tamil regions (especially the Pandya kingdom) in his travelogue, "The Travels of Marco Polo." Though he did not establish a direct link between the Mongols and the Tamil rulers, his records indicate that Kublai Khan was aware of and interested in the Tamil territories.

Yuan Dynasty’s Expedition to Sri Lanka (1284)

In 1284, Kublai Khan dispatched a Mongol embassy to Sri Lanka, led by an official named Mongol Jialbo. This mission was meant to demand tribute from the Sri Lankan rulers. Given the political landscape of Sri Lanka—where both Tamil and Sinhalese rulers held power—it is possible that Tamil rulers or warriors had interactions with the Mongol emissaries, either diplomatically or in opposition.

Looking Beyond the Horizon

As we delve into the complex web of connections between the Tamil regions, Southeast Asia, and the Mongol Empire, we begin to see how deeply intertwined these histories were. The Pamalayu Expedition was not just a diplomatic mission—it was a strategic maneuver in a high-stakes geopolitical game played between Singhasari, the Mauli dynasty, the Mongols, and the Tamil maritime powers.

In the next sections, we will further explore these fascinating historical intersections…